1. Your instructor has reviewed several strategies to conduct and report on scientific research.  Discuss the procedures in the positivistic, scientific method and the components of this research paper. List two reasons why you agree or disagree with this worldview and how you might utilize it for your future research agenda. The procedures used by scientists for a positivistic view is that they search for the “truth” as a method of better understanding natural sciences, and they look for the universal laws to help provide evidence.    In researching a specific topic, one should look closely at the literature, and then come up with the statement of the problem or hypothesis.  Then the researcher will be able to establish some boundaries in the study.  The researcher can then analyze and collect the data necessary for the research.  If the researcher decides to do a quantitative study then they usually start with their theory and a certain hypothesis a certain issue, but the qualitative researcher starts with questions for the research that may be simple to start with, and has to deal with a very broad topic.  Components of the research paper include: The introduction, problem statement, review of literature, (basis of topic) what can be done to resolve the problem may be included; perhaps some resources available may be incorporated into the research paper, research method described, procedures, data analysis, a conclusion and references.  I totally agree with this worldview because, the numbers show the facts and that’s excellent evidence, secondly, since this method can show theories as proof or as “truth” the truth will stand along with significant  findings, so this is why I intend to utilize it for any further research I may do.

2. We have stated that the researcher must remember the equation [dependent variables = independent variables]. Discuss the differences between independent and dependent variables and the influence one exerts upon the other.  How was this theorem influential in your study or project?   A dependent variable is the one that is changed.  It’s the one which is measured and observed for change.  The independent variable is the one which is acknowledged in advance.  The independent variable is the one receiving treatment.  It causes something to happen (causative).  In my research study the independent variable (stress) was used to observe the effect on the variable that’s dependant (immune system), and the independent variable did indeed influence the dependant variable.    

3. Create a list of the independent variables you identified in your study (Hint: these are important client, institutional, environmental, or patient characteristics).  Give one example of a variable you could change or 'fix' in a departmental, governmental, or organizational policy.  Some my observable independent variables were: anxiety, withdrawal from loved ones, frequent illness, feeling out of control, and coping skills.  In a departmental/work environment, the elimination of being “understaffed” could perhaps eliminate some stress.  In the organizational area, establish more resources for stress management/coping skills. 

4. When creating a study, one must address the operational definitions for individual studies.  Give 3 examples of operational definitions you encountered in your project.  How does this process help or hinder the researcher?  To avoid misinterpretation in a study, addressing the operational characterization helps clarify the meaning of the phenomena in the proper definition. Learning of the following three: nor epinephrine, epinephrine, and adrenaline, helped me understand that while under stress, these hormones effect the immune response temporarily, and these hormones can also slow down growth, reproduction and digestion. 

5. Define the different scales of measurement (i.e. Ordinal, Nominal, Interval, Ratio). In each of these scales of measure, how would the researcher decide on which statistical analysis to use?  How did you decide what methodology to use (theoretically, you told me in METHODS chapter what you decided to do with the entire datum).

·        Ordinal- discrete numbers that are “ordered” It can represent what the variable is.  They aren’t considered equal because the intervals between the categories aren’t known. They are arranged in ranks and levels.

·        Interval – here numbers are represented as equal with actual amounts.  Distance can be measured.

·        Ratio- has equal intervals between them and is continuous. Is based upon a number scale.

·        Nominal- these variables display things such as names, or labels of characteristics.  This uses no measure of distance between the data points. 

I decided to focus on the nominal scale of measure because of the distinction expressed in my paper (and power point): the coping skills/ exercise, relaxation, humor, and healthy eating.  Things that were effected due to stress were: hearing, vision, digestion, heart rate etc. 

6. Discuss the types of reliability. Why does a researcher in health care consider reliability an important component of their study? 

·        Subject Fatigue- which is sometimes disturbing because the subjects may become tired during or especially towards the end of a testing process due to physical or mental tasks in which they are expected to perform “repeatedly”

·        Subject Motivation – subjects may not be enthused about the study and lacking in motivation, so they may not perform well.

·        Subject Learning- Subjects can learn from the same repeated tests within the study. 

·        Subject Ability- Depending on the subjects level of knowledge pertaining to the topic, this will somewhat reflect in their response to particular tasks and/or questions.

·        Tester skill- Responses may vary with the same subject when the tester doesn’t give the tests in the same way each time.

·        Different Testers- Those who perform the tests, describe the tests in different ways.

·        Test Environment- Changes in our environment can affect the subject’s responses.

A researcher in health care considers reliability an important component within their study, especially when it’s repeated and the associative relationships are the same.

7. Define validity. Examine internal and external validities and list attributes or problems associated with validity issues (think from the perspective of a potential patient or an informed peer reviewer of your study). Validity means the accuracy of scientific findings.  When the constructs investigated are addressed in the study and measure.

  Internal validity- is where there can be many problems. Are the investigators really accurate in measuring what they really “think” they are observing?

·        History- a problem can be if an occurrence takes place to the subject or the environment unexpectedly in the study design. In order to prevent this historical contamination one must be cautious in sampling and controlling subjects’ during the study.

·        Maturation- this is related to the time more so than the events happening in between the post-test and pre-test.  If children are involved in a study a problem may arise and it could be hard to determine certain factors due to the Childs: development, changes and growth or all three combined over time.

·        Testing- Subjects who take the same test repeatedly during a study can learn from a practice effect and reach higher scores through their experience on particular testing.

·        Subject Selection- If subjects offer to help in a study they most likely will be different from the ones who are “chosen” to participate.

·        Subject Mortality or Attrition- It’s difficult to avoid attrition due to occurrences such as death, sickness, or geographic moves, etc.  Therefore, additional subjects should be recruited into the study to make up for other losses. 

·        Instrumentation- The devices used could be faulty or worn out.  This could  influence the measurements in an “inaccurate” way. 

  External validity- a problem could be as to where are the ideas produced or qualified by? 

·        Hawthorne Effect-  under the Hawthorne Effect subjects will show to perform better because they are getting special attention during the study task and not performing better necessarily because of the treatment they are receiving. 

·        Replication- Researchers describe their methods in proper detail to accurately report their studies for further replication.

·        Generalizability- means that results in the study sample also will be in the population.

·        Multitreatments- with more than one treatment as the independent variable, results can’t be generalized to other setting in which only one of those treatments is used.

·        Researcher Effect- Often the subject reacts to the study in a particular way due to their relationship with the researcher, whether it’s positive or negative.

8. Discuss the characteristics of a quantitative research design. Name and discuss at least two designs from this worldview or viewpoint.  Why would you decide to use this worldview or research methodology (instead of qualitative)? Quantitative Research Design’s –is designed to establish facts, show explanations and relationships between variables, strive for generlizability and allow prediction.  The Non-experimental involves survey and correlation research.  The Quasi-experimental lacks randomization which displays convenience samples and cohort designs.  Therefore, I would use the worldview because I could prove my theory with concrete numbers.

9. Discuss the characteristics of a qualitative research design. Name and discuss at least two designs from this worldview or viewpoint. Why would you decide to use this worldview or research methodology (instead of quantitative)? Qualitative Research Design- displays different interpretations and multiple realities in its development.  They lend themselves to the study of individuals or small groups of subjects.  The Ethnographic Design is the science and art of explaining a group and its culture.  Case method research design is areas where we can study case studies to learn from certain clients, and understand some problems and issues perhaps in our own field of study as it relates to it.  I would use this methodology because of its flexibility and facts aren’t extremely essential to back up theories. 

10. Your instructor has stated that “…the best positivistic (quantitative) studies often arise from a relativist study or (qualitative) framework of inquiry.” Discuss advantages and disadvantages of qualitative and quantitative research designs.  If you had it to do over, would you change the methodology you used in your study?  In Quantitative the researcher uses numbers so that doesn’t leave much room for flexibility for the theory being studied.  Quantitative is more predictable.  It shows data, statistics, and allows more control.  Qualitative is flexible and not so great for factorial numbers.  I like the truth and facts, so in my method of research I would aim to stay with that for all of my studies I do.  I find great satisfaction in seeing a theory proven.